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Disputes in Mexico: courts, commercial arbitration, enforcing awards and judgments, amparo and investment treaty claims

Last verified: 2026-10-26 · Status: Changing

Mexico's Commercial Code carries the UNCITRAL Model Law: written arbitration clauses bind the courts, awards made in Mexico can be annulled only on narrow grounds within three months, and awards from any country are enforced without homologation in a fast special trial with no appeal, backed by the New York Convention since 1971. Foreign court judgments face a stricter eight condition exequatur with a reciprocity test, while domestic commercial suits run through an oral trial for any amount or an executive trial with attachment at the first step, courts charge no fees and claims expire in ten years generally and three years on promissory notes. The 2024 judicial reform made federal judges elected, with the next election set for June 2028, the October 2025 amparo reform narrowed interim relief, and treaty protection runs through ICSID since 2018 and a narrow USMCA route for US investors.

USD conversions use MXN 18.5026 per US dollar, the US Federal Reserve H.10 noon buying rate in New York for 16 October 2026 (FRED series DEXMXUS), the latest observation available when this page was verified. Conversions are for orientation only.

Key facts

Arbitration law based on the UNCITRAL Model Law	Yes (Commercial Code, Book Five, Title Four) CCom arts. 1415 to 1480, as of 2026-10-26 · in force
Deadline to seek annulment of an award made in Mexico	3 monthsCCom art. 1458, as of 2026-10-26 · in force
Party to the 1958 New York Convention	Yes, accession 14 April 1971, in force 13 July 1971, no reservations New York Convention status (UNCITRAL), as of 2026-10-26 · in force
New York Convention entry into force for Mexico	1971-07-13 dateNew York Convention status (UNCITRAL), as of 2026-10-26 · in force
ICSID Convention in force	Yes, since 26 August 2018 (signed 11 January 2018, ratified 27 July 2018) ICSID/3 list of contracting states, as of 2026-10-26 · in force
Reciprocity test for enforcing foreign judgments	Yes, enforcement may be refused if the country of origin does not enforce foreign judgments in analogous cases CCom art. 1347-A; CNPCF art. 1186, as of 2026-10-26 · in force
Principal below which commercial judgments are not appealable	924300.58 MXNCCom arts. 1339 and 1340; Acuerdo DOF 18 February 2026, as of 2026-10-26 · in force
Court filing fees	None, judicial costs prohibited Constitution art. 17, as of 2026-10-26 · in force
General limitation period for commercial claims	10 yearsCCom art. 1047, as of 2026-10-26 · in force
Limitation period for actions on promissory notes and bills of exchange	3 yearsLGTOC arts. 165 and 174, as of 2026-10-26 · in force
General deadline to file an amparo claim	15 daysLey de Amparo art. 17, as of 2026-10-26 · in force
USMCA Annex 14-D domestic litigation period before arbitration (Mexico United States)	30 monthsUSMCA art. 14.D.5, as of 2026-10-26 · in force
Next federal and local judicial election	First Sunday of June 2028 Constitution, decree DOF 2 June 2026, transitory arts. 2 and 3, as of 2026-10-26 · in force

The rule

1. An arbitration clause binds Mexican courts, provided it is in writing. The arbitration agreement must be in writing: a signed document, an exchange of letters or electronic messages that record it, or a statement of claim and defence in which one party asserts it and the other does not deny it; a contract that refers to a document containing an arbitration clause also counts. A judge seized of a case covered by the clause must refer the parties to arbitration when either asks, unless the agreement is shown to be void, ineffective or incapable of being performed, and the arbitration may begin or continue while that question is pending. The request must be made in the first filing on the merits; the judge decides immediately, suspends the court case and may refuse referral only if a final decision has already annulled the agreement or its invalidity is obvious, applying a strict standard. There is no appeal against the referral decision.
Cost to do it: No court fee: Mexican courts may not charge judicial costs (Constitution art. 17). The cost is counsel's time to file the referral request in the first written answer.
Example: A Mexican distributor sues its foreign supplier before a Monterrey commercial court for MXN 5,000,000 despite an arbitration clause in the distribution contract. In its answer the supplier requests referral; the judge suspends the case and sends the dispute to arbitration, and the distributor cannot appeal that order. / Claim of about USD 270,232 at 18.5026; the referral order keeps it out of court.Código de Comercio, DOF 7 October to 13 December 1889 (Chamber of Deputies consolidated text, last reform DOF 14 November 2025, amounts updated by agreement DOF 18 February 2026), Arts. 1423, 1424, 1464 and 1465, 1993-07-22 official text · verified 2026-10-26 · changed: The decree of DOF 27 January 2011 added arts. 1464 and 1465 (referral procedure, strict standard and no appeal), and the decree of DOF 6 June 2011 added the third paragraph of art. 1424 on foreign residents who agreed to arbitration.

2. Mexican arbitration law follows the UNCITRAL Model Law and gives the parties control. Title Four of Book Five of the Commercial Code governs domestic commercial arbitration and international arbitration seated in Mexico; its rules on court referral, interim measures and recognition of awards (arts. 1424, 1425, 1461 to 1463) also apply when the seat is abroad. Arbitration is international where, among other cases, the parties had their places of business in different countries when they made the agreement. Courts may intervene only where the title allows it. The parties choose the number of arbitrators (one if they do not), the rules of law applicable to the merits (a choice of a country's law means its substantive law, not its conflict rules) and nationality is no bar to acting as an arbitrator. Either party may ask a court for interim measures before or during the arbitration, and interim measures ordered by an arbitral tribunal are binding and enforced by the competent judge in any state, subject to limited grounds for refusal.
Cost to do it: Arbitrators' and institution fees are set by the chosen rules or agreed by the parties; the Commercial Code sets no amounts. A sole arbitrator, the default, is the cheapest option.
Example: A US investor and a Mexican partner sign a joint venture agreement with an arbitration clause seated in Mexico City under New York law. The tribunal applies New York substantive law to the merits and the Mexico City first instance courts (federal or local) handle any court assistance. / Not a monetary rule.Código de Comercio, DOF 7 October to 13 December 1889 (Chamber of Deputies consolidated text, last reform DOF 14 November 2025, amounts updated by agreement DOF 18 February 2026), Arts. 1415, 1416, 1421, 1422, 1425, 1426, 1427, 1445, 1478, 1479 and 1480, 1993-07-22 official text · verified 2026-10-26 · changed: The DOF 22 July 1993 reform restructured the arbitration title on the Model Law; the DOF 27 January 2011 reform added court enforcement of arbitral interim measures (arts. 1478 to 1480).

3. An award made in Mexico can be annulled only on short, listed grounds, and only within three months. A Mexican court may set aside an award only if the applicant proves incapacity or an invalid agreement, lack of proper notice or inability to present its case, a decision outside the scope of the agreement (severable parts only), or a tribunal or procedure not in line with the agreement; or if the court finds the subject matter not arbitrable under Mexican law or the award contrary to public policy. The request must be filed within three months of notice of the award (or of the decision on a correction or interpretation request). Annulment runs through a special fast trial: 15 days to answer, a 10 day evidence period only if needed, a hearing within three days, and no appeal against the interim rulings or the judgment.
Cost to do it: No court fee (Constitution art. 17); counsel's costs for a short written procedure with no ordinary appeal.
Example: An award notified on 2 March 2026 orders a Mexican buyer to pay MXN 18,502,600. The buyer's window to seek annulment closes on 2 June 2026; arguing that the tribunal misread the contract is not a ground. / Award of USD 1,000,000 at 18.5026.Código de Comercio, DOF 7 October to 13 December 1889 (Chamber of Deputies consolidated text, last reform DOF 14 November 2025, amounts updated by agreement DOF 18 February 2026), Arts. 1457, 1458, 1470 and 1473 to 1476, 1993-07-22 official text · verified 2026-10-26 · changed: The special trial for annulment and enforcement (arts. 1470 to 1477) was added by decree DOF 27 January 2011.

4. Arbitral awards from any country are enforceable in Mexico without homologation. An award, wherever made, is recognized as binding and enforced on written application to the court, with the authenticated original or a certified copy of the award and the arbitration agreement, translated into Spanish by an official expert where needed. Recognition may be refused only on grounds that mirror the New York Convention: incapacity or invalid agreement, lack of notice or due process, excess of scope, irregular tribunal or procedure, an award not yet binding or set aside at the seat, non arbitrability or public policy. If annulment is pending at the seat, the Mexican judge may adjourn and order security. No homologation is required; enforcement runs through the same special trial with no appeal. The competent judge is the federal or local first instance court of the debtor's domicile or, failing that, where the assets are. Mexico acceded to the 1958 New York Convention on 14 April 1971, in force for Mexico on 13 July 1971, with no declarations or reservations listed by UNCITRAL. Argentina is also a party (in force there since 12 June 1989, applying it only to awards made in other contracting states and to commercial relationships), so awards seated in Argentina are enforceable in Mexico on the same grounds; see The Argentine Thread guide for the Argentine side.
Cost to do it: No court fee (Constitution art. 17). Budget for certified copies, apostille or legalization of the award and an official expert translation into Spanish, which are quoted per page by the translator.
Example: A London seated award orders a Mexican company to pay MXN 18,502,600. The creditor files the certified award, the contract with the clause and their Spanish translations with the court of the debtor's domicile in Guadalajara and enforces it in the special trial, with no appeal against the judgment. / USD 1,000,000 at 18.5026.Código de Comercio, DOF 7 October to 13 December 1889 (Chamber of Deputies consolidated text, last reform DOF 14 November 2025, amounts updated by agreement DOF 18 February 2026); Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards (New York, 1958), CCom arts. 1422, 1461, 1462, 1463 and 1471; New York Convention arts. III to V, 1971-04-14 official text · verified 2026-10-26

5. Foreign court judgments need exequatur and must meet eight conditions. In commercial matters a foreign judgment can be enforced if letters rogatory formalities were met, it does not result from an action in rem, the foreign court had jurisdiction under internationally recognized rules compatible with Mexican ones (it has none if the parties agreed to submit only to Mexican courts), the defendant was personally served, the judgment is final or has no ordinary appeal, no prior case between the same parties is pending in Mexico, the obligation is not contrary to Mexican public policy and the judgment is authentic. Even then the judge may refuse if the country of origin does not enforce foreign judgments in similar cases. The new National Code of Civil and Family Procedure, which must be in force everywhere by 1 April 2027 at the latest, keeps similar conditions for civil judgments and the reciprocity test, and states that the enforcing court may not review the merits; the ruling on forced enforcement is due within three days after the last evidence and may be appealed.
Cost to do it: No court fee; certified copies, apostille, official translation and service through letters rogatory, which add weeks to months.
Example: A Texas court judgment for MXN 9,251,300 against a Mexican company that was served only by mail fails the personal service condition and cannot be enforced in Mexico; an exclusive Mexican courts clause in the contract would also defeat it. / About USD 500,000 at 18.5026.Código de Comercio, DOF 7 October to 13 December 1889 (Chamber of Deputies consolidated text, last reform DOF 14 November 2025, amounts updated by agreement DOF 18 February 2026); Código Nacional de Procedimientos Civiles y Familiares, DOF 7 June 2023 (Chamber of Deputies consolidated text, last reform DOF 15 January 2026), CCom art. 1347-A; CNPCF arts. 1181, 1182, 1186, 1189 and 1190 and transitory art. 2, 1989-01-04 official text · verified 2026-10-26 · changed: The CNPCF (DOF 7 June 2023) replaces the Federal Code of Civil Procedure, which is repealed no later than 1 April 2027, the latest date for the new code to enter into force in federal and state courts.

6. Domestic commercial litigation: an oral trial for any amount, an executive trial with attachment, and an appeal threshold. All commercial claims of determined value, with no amount limit, go to the oral commercial trial, against whose rulings there is no ordinary appeal. A claim based on a document with executory force (a final judgment or non appealable award, a notarial instrument with a liquid and due obligation, or a negotiable instrument such as a promissory note) goes to the executive trial, where the first order requires payment and, failing payment, attachment of enough assets to cover debt and costs. In other proceedings, judgments are not appealable where the principal claimed is below MXN 924,300.58, an amount updated each year for inflation by the Ministry of Economy. The parties may agree on the competent court: the courts of either party's domicile, the place of performance or the location of the asset. Justice is free: judicial costs are prohibited.
Cost to do it: No court fee. Below MXN 924,300.58 (about USD 49,955) of principal, the first instance judgment is final, which saves the cost and time of an appeal but leaves only amparo against it.
Example: A supplier holding a MXN 750,000 promissory note signed by a Mexican client files an executive trial; the court orders payment and, if not paid, attachment of assets at the first step. Because the principal is below MXN 924,300.58, the judgment cannot be appealed. / About USD 40,535 at 18.5026.Código de Comercio, DOF 7 October to 13 December 1889 (Chamber of Deputies consolidated text, last reform DOF 14 November 2025, amounts updated by agreement DOF 18 February 2026); Acuerdo of the Ministry of Economy, DOF 18 February 2026; Constitución Política de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos (consolidated text, last reform DOF 7 October 2026), CCom arts. 1092, 1093, 1339, 1340, 1390 Bis, 1391 and 1392; Constitution art. 17, 2026-02-18 official text · verified 2026-10-26 · changed: The appeal threshold was updated to MXN 924,300.58 by agreement DOF 26 December 2025 as amended by agreement DOF 18 February 2026, in force on publication; the oral trial covers all amounts since the decree of DOF 25 January 2017.

7. Commercial claims expire, and the periods are strict. Limitation periods for commercial actions are fatal and cannot be restored. The general period is ten years unless the Code sets a shorter one; actions between a company and its shareholders arising from the company contract, and actions against liquidators, expire in five years. Actions on bills of exchange and promissory notes (acción cambiaria) expire in three years from maturity. Periods start when the action could first be brought in court and are interrupted by a claim or other judicial demand, by acknowledgment of the debt or by renewal of the document; a new period runs from the acknowledgment or renewal.
Cost to do it: Free to preserve: a written acknowledgment of the debt by the debtor restarts the period at no cost.
Example: A promissory note for MXN 1,500,000 matured on 1 March 2024. The holder must sue on the note by 1 March 2027 or lose the fast executive route on the note itself. / About USD 81,070 at 18.5026.Código de Comercio, DOF 7 October to 13 December 1889 (Chamber of Deputies consolidated text, last reform DOF 14 November 2025, amounts updated by agreement DOF 18 February 2026); Ley General de Títulos y Operaciones de Crédito, DOF 27 August 1932 (Chamber of Deputies consolidated text, last reform DOF 26 March 2024), CCom arts. 1039, 1040, 1041, 1042, 1045 and 1047; LGTOC arts. 165 and 174, 1932-08-27 official text · verified 2026-10-26

8. Federal judges are now elected, and the transition is still running. The 2024 judicial reform made Supreme Court justices, electoral and disciplinary magistrates, circuit magistrates and district judges elected by popular vote, cut the Supreme Court to nine members serving twelve years, and replaced the Federal Judicial Council with a Judicial Discipline Tribunal and a judicial administration body. Those elected in the extraordinary election of 2025 took office on 1 September 2025. A further constitutional amendment of DOF 2 June 2026 moved the next judicial election to the first Sunday of June 2028: all federal and state judicial posts not renewed in 2025 are elected then, and judges whose terms would have ended in 2027 stay in office until 2028.
Cost to do it: No direct cost; the practical effect is a reason to weigh arbitration and a clear seat in contracts for large or long term deals.
Example: A ten year energy offtake contract signed in 2026 will be performed through at least one more full judicial election cycle, in 2028; many sponsors therefore choose arbitration with a seat and institutional rules agreed in the contract. / Not a monetary rule.Constitución Política de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos, decree on judicial reform DOF 15 September 2024 and decree DOF 2 June 2026 (Chamber of Deputies consolidated text, last reform DOF 7 October 2026), Arts. 94, 96 and 100; transitory arts. of the decrees of DOF 15 September 2024 and DOF 2 June 2026, 2024-09-15 official text · verified 2026-10-26 · changed: Decree DOF 15 September 2024 introduced elected judges and the Judicial Discipline Tribunal; decree DOF 2 June 2026 set the coinciding federal and local judicial elections for June 2028 and extended judges whose terms ended in 2027 to 2028.

9. Amparo, the constitutional challenge against authorities, has a short deadline and, since October 2025, narrower interim relief. A company that wants to challenge an act of authority (a tax assessment, a permit revocation, a court ruling) generally has 15 days to file an amparo claim, or 30 days against a self executing law. Suspension of the challenged act requires the court to weigh the appearance of good right against the social interest and the applicant must show a suspension interest. The October 2025 reform added cases where suspension is presumed to harm the social interest: continuing operations that could aid money laundering (with no provisional suspension of frozen accounts, and definitive suspension only for funds whose lawful origin is shown), blocking the authorities from obtaining financial intelligence, and continuing activities that need a federal permit, authorization or concession the applicant does not have. Against tax collection, suspension requires a guarantee of the tax interest; for final assessments it must be a deposit certificate or a letter of credit from an authorized institution.
Cost to do it: No court fee; the guarantee of the tax interest equals the disputed tax (courts may reduce or waive it in limited cases), which ties up cash or credit lines for the life of the case.
Example: SAT assesses MXN 18,502,600 against a subsidiary and the assessment becomes final after a tax court case. To suspend collection while an amparo runs, the company must post a deposit certificate or bank letter of credit for the tax interest. / About USD 1,000,000 at 18.5026 tied up as guarantee.Ley de Amparo, DOF 2 April 2013 (Chamber of Deputies consolidated text, last reform DOF 16 October 2025), Arts. 17, 128, 129 (sections XIV to XVI) and 135, 2025-10-16 official text · verified 2026-10-26 · changed: The decree of DOF 16 October 2025 reformed art. 128, added sections XIV to XVI to art. 129 and added the deposit or letter of credit requirement for final tax assessments to art. 135.

10. Investment treaty arbitration: ICSID since 2018, and a narrow USMCA route for US investors. Mexico signed the ICSID Convention on 11 January 2018, deposited ratification on 27 July 2018 and it entered into force for Mexico on 26 August 2018, so ICSID awards against Mexico can be enforced as final judgments in any member state. Under the USMCA (in force 1 July 2020), Annex 14-D lets a US investor claim against Mexico, and a Mexican investor against the United States, only for breach of national treatment or most favoured nation treatment after establishment, or for direct expropriation, and only after first bringing a case in the host state's courts and obtaining a final decision or waiting 30 months, within four years of learning of the breach and loss. Annex 14-E gives broader claims, subject to a six month cooling off and three year limit, to investors party to a covered government contract with a federal authority in oil and gas, power generation, telecommunications, transportation or roads, railways, bridges or canals. Canadian investors are not covered by either annex. Claims on investments made under NAFTA (legacy investments) were possible only for three years after NAFTA ended. Argentina has been an ICSID member since 18 November 1994, so both countries are inside the ICSID system; the Argentine side is covered in The Argentine Thread guide.
Cost to do it: ICSID charges a lodging fee and arbitrator fees set in its schedule of fees; treaty claims typically take years and require the 30 month domestic litigation step first under Annex 14-D.
Example: A US owned manufacturer whose Mexican plant is seized by decree (direct expropriation) must first sue in Mexican courts; after a final decision or 30 months it may file under USMCA Annex 14-D, within four years of learning of the measure and the loss. / Not a monetary rule; the claim is for the fair market value of the expropriated investment.Convention on the Settlement of Investment Disputes between States and Nationals of Other States (ICSID); United States Mexico Canada Agreement (USMCA), Chapter 14, ICSID Convention arts. 25, 53 and 54; USMCA Annex 14-C, Annex 14-D arts. 14.D.3 and 14.D.5, Annex 14-E paras. 2, 4 and 6, 2018-08-26 official text · verified 2026-10-26

Instrument	Route in Mexico	Grounds to refuse	Appeal	Rule
Award seated in Mexico	Enforcement or annulment in the special trial	Listed grounds only; annulment within 3 months	None	CCom arts. 1457, 1458, 1470 to 1476
Foreign arbitral award	Recognition without homologation, special trial at debtor's domicile or asset location	New York Convention grounds	None	CCom arts. 1422, 1461 to 1463, 1471
Foreign court judgment	Exequatur (homologation)	Eight conditions plus reciprocity	Yes, under the CNPCF the enforcement ruling is appealable	CCom art. 1347-A; CNPCF arts. 1186, 1190
Promissory note or notarial instrument with liquid debt	Executive trial, payment demand and attachment at first step	Defences in the trial	Only if principal is MXN 924,300.58 or more	CCom arts. 1339, 1340, 1391, 1392
ICSID award against Mexico	Enforced as a final judgment of a member state court	Annulment only within ICSID	ICSID annulment only	ICSID Convention arts. 53 and 54

Which route enforces what in Mexico, verified 26 October 2026 against the official texts cited on this page.

Deadline	Period	Rule
Seek annulment of an award made in Mexico	3 months from notice	CCom art. 1458
Answer in the special arbitration trial	15 days	CCom art. 1473
File an amparo claim (general)	15 days; 30 days against a self executing law	Ley de Amparo art. 17
Sue on a promissory note	3 years from maturity	LGTOC arts. 165 and 174
General commercial limitation	10 years	CCom art. 1047
Company and shareholder claims	5 years	CCom art. 1045
USMCA Annex 14-D claim	After final local decision or 30 months, within 4 years of knowledge	USMCA art. 14.D.5
USMCA Annex 14-E claim	At least 6 months after the events, within 3 years of knowledge	USMCA Annex 14-E para. 4

Key deadlines for disputes in Mexico.

Worked example

A US company sells equipment to a Mexican buyer for USD 1,000,000 (MXN 18,502,600 at 18.5026) under a contract with an ICC arbitration clause seated in Houston. The buyer refuses to pay and sues in Mexico City instead.
Step 1: in its first written answer the US seller asks the Mexico City court to refer the case to arbitration; the court suspends the suit and refers it, and the buyer cannot appeal (CCom arts. 1424, 1464 and 1465).
Step 2: the Houston tribunal awards USD 1,000,000 plus costs. Mexico applies the New York Convention to a US award; the seller files the certified award, the contract and official Spanish translations with the court of the buyer's domicile (CCom arts. 1422 and 1461).
Step 3: the special trial gives the buyer 15 days to answer, a hearing follows within days and the judgment cannot be appealed; the buyer can resist only on New York Convention grounds such as lack of notice or public policy (CCom arts. 1462 and 1473 to 1476).
Step 4: with the enforcement judgment the seller moves to attach the buyer's assets. Had the contract instead chosen Texas courts, the seller would need exequatur under CCom art. 1347-A, proving personal service and Texas reciprocity, with more grounds for the buyer to resist.

Step by step

1. Draft the clause: put the arbitration agreement in writing in the contract, name the seat, the institution or rules, the number of arbitrators and the governing law (CCom arts. 1423, 1426 and 1445).
2. If you prefer courts, choose them expressly (domicile of a party, place of performance or location of the asset) and remember that a foreign judgment needs exequatur in Mexico with a reciprocity test (CCom arts. 1093 and 1347-A).
3. Take negotiable security: a promissory note or a notarial instrument with a liquid obligation opens the executive trial with attachment at the first step (CCom arts. 1391 and 1392).
4. Diary limitation periods from the date each claim could be brought: three years on notes, five on shareholder claims, ten generally; get written acknowledgments of debt to restart them (CCom arts. 1041, 1045 and 1047; LGTOC art. 165).
5. If sued in breach of the clause, request referral in your first filing on the merits, not later (CCom art. 1464).
6. After an award, check the three month annulment window if seated in Mexico, and prepare certified copies, apostille and official Spanish translations for enforcement (CCom arts. 1458 and 1461).
7. Against an act of authority, calendar the 15 day amparo deadline from notice and line up a guarantee if suspension of tax collection is needed (Ley de Amparo arts. 17 and 135).
8. For large or regulated investments, map treaty protection early: ICSID membership, the USMCA annex that applies, and whether a covered government contract exists (USMCA Annexes 14-D and 14-E).

Common traps

Raising the arbitration clause too late. The referral request must be made in the first filing on the merits (CCom art. 1464).
An oral or unsigned arbitration agreement. It must be in writing or recorded in an exchange of messages or pleadings (CCom art. 1423).
Missing the three month annulment window for an award made in Mexico (CCom art. 1458).
Assuming a foreign court judgment will be enforced like an award. Judgments face eight conditions and a reciprocity test, and an exclusive Mexican courts clause removes the foreign court's jurisdiction (CCom art. 1347-A).
Serving a Mexican defendant abroad by mail or courier. Enforcement of the judgment requires personal service (CCom art. 1347-A, section IV).
Expecting an appeal on smaller claims. Below MXN 924,300.58 of principal, first instance commercial judgments are final (CCom arts. 1339 and 1340).
Letting a promissory note go stale. The action on the note expires three years after maturity (LGTOC art. 165).
Counting on interim suspension in amparo for frozen bank accounts or for operating without a federal permit; since October 2025 these cases are presumed contrary to the social interest (Ley de Amparo art. 129).
Assuming USMCA gives Canadian investors treaty arbitration against Mexico, or that US investors can claim for indirect expropriation without first litigating 30 months locally. Annex 14-D does neither (USMCA arts. 14.D.3 and 14.D.5).

Sources

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